War at York (1812-1815)
On June 18, 1812, James Madison, the President of the United States, signed a declaration of war against Great Britain. This war was an outgrowth of the ongoing conflict in Europe between Britain and France, both of whom were blatently disregarding the naval and trade rights of neutral countries like the United States. The British in particular were guilty of these violations. They repeatedly stopped American vessels, confiscated their cargo, and seized American seamen, claiming that they were deserters from the Royal Navy. In addition, many American citizens believed that the British territory in North America was rightfully theirs and should have been taken during the Revolutionary War (1776-1783). With these two root causes, Americans came to regard the War of 1812 as a second “war of independence”. From the outset, victory for the United States seemed almost a forgone conclusion. Former American president Thomas Jefferson was famously quoted at the time as saying that the taking of Canada would be “a mere matter of marching”.
The news of war was received at York with apprehension mixed with a firm belief in the supremacy and protecting power of Britain. Major General Sir Isaac Brock was the commander of British forces in Upper Canada and had become its Lieutenant-Governor in 1811. He had the unenviable task of defending a 2,000 kilometer border with only 1,600 British regulars and a few hundred locals, most of whom had little or no military training, and many of whom had recently been Americans, leading Brock to question their loyalty. Despite Brock’s urging prior to the war to fortify York’s defences, the garrison in 1812 was still woefully inadequate and incapable of withstanding an attack.
Nevertheless, the war went well for the British in the early stages, with victories at Detroit and Queenston in the first few months. A decisive factor in the early British victories was the aid of natives under the leadership of Shawnee Chief Tecumseh. The British victory at Queenston Heights was mixed with the grievous loss of General Brock, who was killed during the battle on October 13, 1812.
The next spring war came home to York in a frightening and tangible way. On April 27, 1813, an American fleet of 13 ships and 1,700 troops approached and overwhelmed the town. The British defences at York consisted of only 300 regulars, about the same number of volunteer militia, and some Indians. The Americans swept through the town, destroying the Parliament Buildings, garrison and other public buildings. Widespread looting occurred in the next few days, after the British General Sir Roger Sheaffe withdrew his British soldiers to Kingston. After Sheaffe’s departure the terms of capitulation of York were negotiated led mainly by Dr. Strachan, rector of York, who afterwards was something of a hero for his role in the drama. The Americans remained in York between April 27 and May 1, and then withdrew to their ships. The main result of the attack and occupation of York was to jolt the citizens into a realization that capture by the Americans was a real possibility, and that British victory was not a foregone conclusion. An atmosphere of fear of further attacks prevailed in York until the end of the war. Loyal citizens also became suspicious of any residents who were recently arrived from America, particularly in the farm settlements surrounding the town. A second attack and brief occupation of York in the summer of 1813 intensified the conviction that there were American collaborators in their midst. By the summer of 1814 a more substantial, defensible fort had replaced what was left of the old Garrison (some of these buildings are still standing today and are part of Historic Fort York, a museum and tourist attraction). The war was winding down by the fall of 1814, and peace was signed in December, although the news didn’t reach York until February 1815.
The war did have some positive consequences for the town, mainly in the area of economic growth. The supply purchases of the British Army led to high profits for many of the town’s merchants, and some, like William Allan, Quetton St. George and Alexander Wood, made their fortunes during the war. Because the normal transportation routes were either closed or extremely dangerous, prices soared. Workers got higher wages and full employment for the duration of the conflict. When the war ended, prices dropped and American trade and immigration picked up where it had left off a few years earlier. The ruling class were even more powerful and staunchly British than before, and a new middle class began to emerge. Because of the conflict the town’s population had remained about the same, but in the coming years a new wave of immigrants would begin to arrive from across the Atlantic.
From York to Toronto (1815-1834)
In the years following the War of 1812-14, immigrants began to arrive in Upper Canada and at York from across the Atlantic in significant numbers. In 1815 the Napoleonic conflict in Europe ended opening up the trans-atlantic shipping route once again. This factor, combined with the fact that people in Britain and Ireland were facing dislocations due to the Industrial Revolution, led to a migration that started as a trickle and grew steadily in the next few decades. This increase in population naturally led to economic growth in York, whether the new settlers stayed in the town or settled on farmland around it. The forsight of Governor Simcoe in opening up Yonge Street years before became apparent as York developed into a supply hub and market for the expanding rural population above the town.
The town itself began to take on a more mature and formed character as a significant amount of new construction took place. New parliament buildings and a hospital were erected, along with a new jail and courthouse, and many private residences, including those of Rev. John Strachan, Dr. William Baldwin, Chief Justice Sir William Campbell, and D’Arcy Boulton. The last two homes are still standing and more information about them can be found on the Buildings page. However, most dwellings were still rough timber cottages and sheds. In 1821 York got its first financial institution, The Bank of Upper Canada. Between 1816 and 1825, the population of York doubled; but in the next decade, from 1825-1834, it increased nearly fourfold. This influx of people from Britain helped to expand the middle class, and a new segment of society developed that met its desire for advancement through hard work and ingenuity, rather than patronage and government appointments as the ruling class had done. It was also during this time period that a wider variety of religious denominations came to be represented at York. Increasing numbers of English Non-Conformists, Scots Presbyterians, Protestant Irish Methodists and Irish Catholics were living in the town. As a result new churches began to appear at York around 1820. The official newspaper of York, the Upper Canada Gazette, faced competition from reform-minded newcomers like William Lyon Mackenzie, whose Colonial Advocate became a thorn in the side of the ruling class. Another new element in the town was the Orange Order, which reflected a growing Protestant Ulster Irish presence. Overall, the increasingly diverse population of the town meant that the official ruling class, who had held the reins of power and whose authority had been essentially unquestioned, would be facing some serious challenges in the coming years.